PREFACE xv
CHAPTER 1 ACCIDENT LOSSES
Costs of Well-Being 1
The Industrial Revolution and Accidents 2
Increasing Hazards 3
Physical Effects of Accidents 4
Numbers of Accidents vs. Costs 6
Lessening Safety Costs 9
Accident Losses for Personnel vs. Equipment and Facilities Increasing Magnitude of Accident Losses 11
Awards for Injuries 12
Bibliography 13
Exercises 13
CHAPTER 2 LIABILITIES AND SAFETY LEGISLATION 15
Statute Law 15
Common Law 16
Misadventure (Accident) 17
Strict Liability 17
Industrial Revolution 19
Negligence 19
American Laws 22
Steam Engines, Boats, and Locomotives 22
The Fourteenth Amendment and Safety 23
Liability Laws 23
Workers' Compensation Laws 24
Later Actions 25
Resurgence of Strict Liability 25
Limited Liability 27
Excused Negligence 27
Bibliography 27
Exercises 28
CHAPTER 3 WORKERS' COMPENSATION 29
Obligations to Employees 29
Workers' Compensation Laws 30
Problems of Nonuniformity 32
Coverages 34
Workers' Compensation Insurance 34
Costs of Workers' Compensation Insurance 34
Insurance Rating Systems 37
Keeping Workers' Compensation Costs Down 37
Workers' Compensation Reform 39
Requirements for Benefits 40
Disagreements 40
Injury Resulting from an Accident 41
Injury Arising out of Employment 41
Types of Disabilities 43
Monetary Disability Benefits 44
Death Benefits 44
Extent of Medical Benefits 44
Injury and Claim Notices 45
Hearings 45
Action against a Third Party 46
Inadequacy of Workers' Compensation 49
Bibliography 50
Exercises 50
CHAPTER 4 OSHACT AND ITS ADMINISTRATION 52
New Concepts of Accident Avoidance 53
Enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) 55
Other Organizations 55
State Industrial Safety Programs 56
Responsibilities of Employers and Employees 58
Inspections 58
Violations and Penalties 59
Standards 62
Record Keeping 62
Impact of OSHA 62
OSHA and Hazard Minimization 64
Antagonism toward OSHA 64
The New Millennium 67
The New OSHA 68
Exercises 72
CHAPTER 5 STANDARDS, CODES, AND OTHER SAFETY DOCUMENTS 73
Uses for Standards and Codes 74
Mandatory vs. Voluntary Standards 76
Objections to Consensus Standards 79
Test Standards 80
Differences in Standards 81
Changing Standards 83
Inadequacies of Standards 83
Standards and Analyses 84
Proliferation of Standards 84
Status of OSHA Standards 84
Bibliography 85
Exercises 86
CHAPTER 6 ENGINEERS AND SAFETY 87
Accomplishments of Engineers 87
Engineering and Accidents 88
Steam Equipment and Accidents 88
Technical Societies and Safety 89
Inadequacy of Engineering Schools 89
Engineers as Causers of Accidents 90
Registration of Engineers 91
Possible Improvements in Registration 95
Bibliography 97
Exercises 97
CHAPTER 7 MANAGEMENT AND ITS RESPONSIBILITIES 98
Safety Policies 98
OSHAct and Management 100
Actions against Managers 100
Management Attitudes toward Safety 102
Middle Managers 106
Foremen/Forewomen and Safety 106
Procedural Safeguards 107
Management and Supervision 108
Safety Efforts of Other Managers 110
Hazardous Operations 112
Personnel 113
Personal Protective Equipment 114
Checklist for Managers 115
Safety Information System 115
Bibliography 118
Exercises 119
CHAPTER 8 THE CHANGING ROLES OF SAFETY PERSONNEL 120
Safety Laws and Safety Engineers 121
Safety Personnel 122
"Safety Man" 123
Safety Engineer 123
Production and Processing Losses 125
Growing Areas within Safety 125
Bibliography 126
Exercises 126
CHAPTER 9 PERSONNEL 127
Disabled Personnel in the Workplace 128
Older Personnel in the Workforce 130
Human Error 130
Designing and Planning Errors 131
Production Errors 132
Operations Errors 135
Two-Person Concept 136
Human vs. Machine 136
The Biochemical Machine 137
Motivation 138
Violence in the Workplace 139
Judgment 141
Accident-Prone Persons 142
Quantitative Error Prediction 144
Human Factors Engineering 145
Procedural Means of Accident Prevention 146
Critical Operations 146
Responsibilities of the Individual Worker 149
Procedure Analysis 151
Outputs of Procedure Analysis 155
Contingency Analysis 155
Bibliography 157
Exercises 157
CHAPTER 10 PROMOTING SAFE PRACTICES 159
The Behavior-Based Safety Approach 160
The Regulatory Approach: Safety Rules 162
Employee Participation 162
Critical Incident Technique 163
Other Methods 164
Suggestion Programs 164
Union Participation 165
Safety Training 165
In-depth Training 167
Maintaining Awareness 168
General Comments on Safety Committees 168
Safety Committee Duties 169
Bibliography 170
Exercises 170
CHAPTER 11 APPRAISING PLANT SAFETY 171
New Plants and Equipment Designs 172
Existing Plants and Equipment 172
Indicating Plant Hazards 173
Safety Inspections 174
Checklists 175
Quantitative Appraisals 176
Problems with Validity of Statistics 176
Problems with Quantitative Rates 178
Validity of Statistical Comparisons 179
Risk Assessments 180
Acceptance of Risk 184
Risk Communication 186
Bibliography 187
Exercises 187
CHAPTER 12 HAZARDS AND THEIR CONTROL 189
Determining Existence of Hazards 190
Eliminating and Controlling Hazards 192
Isolation, Lockouts, Lockins, and Interlocks 194
Failure Minimization 200
Safety Factors and Margins 200
Monitoring 203
Warning Means and Devices 206
Safe Procedures 207
Backout and Recovery 207
Damage Minimization and Containment 211
Physical Isolation 211
Weak Links 212
Escape, Survival, and Rescue 213
Bibliography 214
Exercises 214
CHAPTER 13 PLANNING FOR EMERGENCIES 215
Medical Responses in Emergencies 215
Bibliography 228
Exercises 228
CHAPTER 14 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS 229
Investigating Board Chairman's Responsibilities 232
Contributing Personnel 232
Conducting the Investigation 234
Accident Reports 235
Corrective Actions 237
Insurance Claims 237
Other Aspects of Accident Investigations 239
Exercises 239
CHAPTER 15 SAFETY ANALYSIS 240
General 240
Preliminary Hazards Analysis 241
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 245
Fault-Tree Analysis (FTA) 245
Fault Tree Symbols 246
Safety Analysis Methods Mandated for Process Safety Management 254
Bibliography 257
Exercises 258
CHAPTER 16 ACCELERATION, FALLS, FALLING OBJECTS, AND OTHER IMPACTS 259
Falls 259
Preventive Measures Against Falls 262
Impacting Objects 265
Other Acceleration Effects 267
Bibliography 270
Exercises 270
CHAPTER 17 MECHANICAL INJURIES 271
Cutting and Tearing 271
Shearing 272
Crushing 272
Breaking 273
Machine Guards and Safety Devices 273
Guards 274
Precautionary Measures 276
Exercises 277
CHAPTER 18 WORK-RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS 279
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs): Work Related or Not Work Related? 280
The Effects of WMSDs 281
Worker-related Factors Associated with MSDs 282
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 283
Nonoccupational Factors of CTS 283
Low Back Pain 284
Back Belts 286
Ergonomics: A Program to Control WMSDs 287
Bibliography 290
Exercises 290
CHAPTER 19 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 291
Effects on Personnel 291
Classification of Burn Severities 296
Burns to the Eye 297
Other Temperature Effects on Personnel 297
High Temperatures 298
Additional Effects 305
Bibliography 311
Exercises 311
CHAPTER 20 PRESSURE HAZARDS 312
Unfired Pressure Vessels 314
Discharges from Safety Valves 317
Dynamic Pressure Hazards 317
Water Hammer 319
Negative Pressure (Vacuums) 320
Testing of Pressure Systems 320
Leaks 321
Effects of Leakage 323
Leak Detection 324
Dysbarism and Decompression Sickness 324
Compressed-Gas Cylinders 328
Bibliography 336
Exercises 340
CHAPTER 21 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS 341
Shock 341
Other Factors 342
Causes of Shock 344
Electrical Insulation Failures 346
Equipment Failures 347
Other Shock Protection 349
Static Electricity 354
Lightning 359
Ignition of Combustible Materials 361
Containment of Discharges 361
Inherently Safe Devices 361
Heating and Overheating 365
Circuit and Equipment Protection 366
Unit Protection 367
Why an Open Circuit? 368
Exercises 374
CHAPTER 22 FIRES AND FIRE SUPPRESSION 375
Fuels 375
Oxidizers 378
Gases 379
Flammable and Combustible Liquids 379
Flammable Solids 386
Ignition 387
Ignition Sources 394
Ignition Delay 394
Effects of Fire on Personnel 396
Fire Detection Systems 399
Fire Classifications 400
Fire Suppression 401
Extinguishing Systems 408
Bibliography 419
Exercises 419
CHAPTER 23 EXPLOSIONS AND EXPLOSIVES 425
Industrial Usage and Problems 425
Materials That Will Explode 429
Explosive Effects 431
Preventing Explosion Damage 434
Bibliography 439
Exercises 439
CHAPTER 24 HAZARDS OF TOXIC MATERIALS 440
Toxic Materials 440
Routes to Injury Sites 441
Hypoxia 441
Hypoxic Hypoxia 445
Mechanisms of Toxic Agents 448
Measurement of Toxicity 458
Detection of Toxic Agents 461
Respiratory Protective Equipment 461
Bibliography 475
Exercises 476
CHAPTER 25 ENVIRONMENTS 477
OSHA and EPA 477
Types of Environments 480
Natural and Induced Environments 480
Controlled Environments 484
Closed or Free Environments 484
Hazards of the Environment 486
Detecting Adverse Environments 486
Protection against the Environment 489
Industrial Ecology 492
Bibliography 495
Exercises 496
CHAPTER 26 CONFINED-SPACE ENTRY 497
What Is a Confined Space? 498
Atmospheric Hazards 500
Physical Hazards 501
Chemical, Biological, Radiation 501
Management Responsibilities for Confined Spaces 501
Bibliography 504
Exercises 505
CHAPTER 27 RADIATION 506
Ionizing Radiation 508
Factors Affecting Exposure and Risk 512
Sources of Ionizing Radiation 512
Beneficial Uses of Ionizing Radiation 515
Fears of Nuclear Radiation 515
Ionizing/Nonionizing Interface 519
Nonionizing Radiations 519
Radio Frequency Radiation of Wireless Communication Devices 527
Bibliography 531
Exercises 531
CHAPTER 28 VIBRATION AND NOISE 532
Effects of Vibration, Sound, and Noise 533
Mechanism of Hearing Injuries 541
Elements of a Hearing Conservation Program (HCP) 542
Annoyance 547
Distraction 547
Interference and Masking 548
Other Vibration Effects 548
Bibliography 554
Exercises 554
CHAPTER 29 COMPUTERS AND SAFETY 557
Safety Uses of Computers 558
Safety Problems to Workers 559
Accidents with Computerized Equipment 559
Computer Inabilities 559
Programming Errors 562
Avoiding Human Errors 562
Safety Data Processing 562
Avoiding Safety Problems 563
Computer Controls against Hazards 563
Computers and Hazard Analyses 564
Simulations 564
Software Hazard Categories 565
Software Analysis 565
Software Hazard Analysis Techniques 567
Tailoring Software Analysis 572
Robots and Accidents 573
For the Future 575
Bibliography 575
Exercises 575
BIBLIOGRAPHY 577
INDEX 583
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