半导体器件基础

CONTENTS.
Prefacexiii
PART1
Materials1
Chapter1
ElectronEnergyandStatesinSemiconductors3
1.1IntroductionandPreview3
1.2ABriefHistory4
1.3ApplicationtotheHydrogenAtom5
1.3.1TheBohrModelfortheHydrogenAtom5
1.3.2ApplicationtoMolecules:Covalent
Bonding11
1.3.3QuantumNumbersandthePauliExclusionPrinciple13
1.3.4CovalentBondinginCrystallineSolids14
1.4Wave-ParticleDuality20
1.5TheWaveFunction22
1.5.1ProbabilityandtheWaveFunction22
1.6TheElectronWaveFunction23
1.6.1TheFreeElectroninOneDimension23
1.6.2ThedeBroglieRelationship25
*1.6.3TheFreeElectroninThreeDimensions26
1.6.4TheQuasi-FreeElectronModel27
1.6.5ReflectionandTunneling32
1.7AFirstLookatOpticalEmissionandAbsorption33
1.8CrystalStructures,Planes,andDirections39
1.9Summary41
1.10ReadingList42
1.11References42
1.12ReviewQuestions42
1.13Problems43
Chapter2
HomogeneousSemiconductors48
2.1IntroductionandPreview48
2.2Pseudo-ClassicalMechanicsforElectronsinCrystals49
2.2.1One-DimensionalCrystals49
*2.2.2Three-DimensionalCrystals55
2.3ConductionBandStructure56
2.4ValenceBandStructure58
2.5IntrinsicSemiconductors59
2.6ExtrinsicSemiconductors62
2.6.1Donors62
2.6.2Acceptors66
2.7TheConceptofHoles67
2.7.1HoleCharge67
*2.7.2EffectiveMassofHoles69
2.8Density-of-StatesFunctionsforElectronsinBands71
2.8.1DensityofStatesandDensity-of-StatesEffectiveMass71
2.9Fermi-DiracStatistics73
2.9.1Fermi-DiracStatisticsforElectronsandHolesinBands73
2.10ElectronandHoleDistributionswithEnergy76
*2.11TemperatureDependenceofCarrier
ConcentrationsinNondegenerateSemiconductors89
*2.11.1CarrierConcentrationsatHighTemperatures89
*2.11.2CarrierConcentrationsatLowTemperatures(CarrierFreeze-out)93
2.12DegenerateSemiconductors94
2.12.1Impurity-InducedBand-GapNarrowing94
2.12.2ApparentBand-GapNarrowing97
2.12.3CarrierConcentrationsinDegenerateSemiconductors99
2.13Summary100
2.13.1NondegenerateSemiconductors101
2.13.2DegenerateSemiconductors102
2.14ReadingList103
2.15References103
2.16ReviewQuestions103
2.17Problems104
Chapter3
CurrentFlowinHomogeneousSemiconductors111
3.1Introduction111
3.2DriftCurrent111
3.3CarrierMobility115
3.3.1CarrierScattering119
3.3.2ScatteringMobility121
3.3.3ImpurityBandMobility122
3.3.4TemperatureDependenceofMobility124
3.3.5High-FieldEffects124
3.4DiffusionCurrent128
3.5CarrierGenerationandRecombination131
3.5.1Band-to-BandGenerationandRecombination133
3.5.2Two-StepProcesses133
3.6OpticalProcessesinSemiconductors133
*3.6.1Absorption133
*3.6.2Emission137
viContents
3.7ContinuityEquations139
3.8MinorityCarrierLifetime142
3.8.1RiseTime144
3.8.2FallTime144
3.9MinorityCarrierDiffusionLengths147
3.10QuasiFermiLevels149
3.11Summary152
3.12ReadingList154
3.13References154
3.14ReviewQuestions154
3.15Problems155
Chapter4
Nonhomogeneous
Semiconductors159
4.1ConstancyoftheFermiLevelatEquilibrium159
4.2GradedDoping161
4.2.1TheEinsteinRelation165
4.2.2AGraded-BaseTransistor166
*4.3NonuniformComposition170
*4.4GradedDopingandGradedCompositionCombined173
4.5Summary175
4.6ReadingList175
4.7References175
4.8ReviewQuestions176
4.9Problems176
SupplementtoPartMaterials179
Supplement1A
IntroductiontoQuantumMechanics180
S1A.1Introduction180
S1A.2TheWaveFunction180
S1A.3ProbabilityandtheWaveFunction182
*S1A.3.1ParticleinaOne-DimensionalPotentialWell182
Contentsvii
S1A.4Schroedinger’sEquation184
S1A.5ApplyingSchroedinger’sEquationtoElectrons185
S1A.6SomeResultsfromQuantumMechanics187
S1A.6.1TheFreeElectron187
S1A.6.2TheQuasi-FreeElectron188
S1A.6.3ThePotentialEnergyWell189
S1A.6.4TheInfinitePotentialWellinOneDimension191
S1A.6.5ReflectionandTransmissionataFinitePotentialBarrier194
S1A.6.6Tunneling196
S1A.6.7TheFinitePotentialWell203
S1A.6.8TheHydrogenAtomRevisited205
S1A.6.9TheUncertaintyPrinciple206
S1A.7Summary210
S1A.8ReviewQuestions211
S1A.9Problems211
Supplement1B
AdditionalTopicsonMaterials215
S1B.1MeasurementofCarrierConcentrationandMobility215
S1B.1.1ResistivityMeasurement215
S1B.1.2HallEffect216
S1B.2Fermi-DiracStatisticsforElectronsinBoundStates219
S1B.3CarrierFreeze-outinSemiconductors222
S1B.4Phonons223
*S1B.4.1CarrierScatteringbyPhonons228
S1B.4.2IndirectElectronTransitions230
S1B.5Summary232
S1B.6ReadingList232
S1B.7References232
S1B.8ReviewQuestions232
S1B.9Problems233
PART2
Diodes235
Chapter5
PrototypepnHomojunctions239
5.1Introduction239
5.2PrototypepnJunctions(Qualitative)241
5.2.1EnergyBandDiagramsofPrototypeJunctions241
5.2.2DescriptionofCurrentFlowinapnHomojunction248
5.3PrototypepnHomojunctions(Quantitative)253
5.3.1EnergyBandDiagramatEquilibrium(StepJunction)253
5.3.2EnergyBandDiagramwithAppliedVoltage256
5.3.3Current-VoltageCharacteristicsofpnHomojunctions263
5.3.4Reverse-BiasBreakdown284
5.4Small-SignalImpedanceofPrototypeHomojunctions286
5.4.1JunctionResistance286
5.4.2JunctionCapacitance288
5.4.3Stored-ChargeCapacitance290
5.5TransientEffects294
5.5.1Turn-offTransient294
5.5.2Turn-onTransient297
5.6EffectsofTemperature301
5.7Summary301
5.7.1Built-inVoltage302
5.7.2JunctionWidth302
5.7.3JunctionCurrent303
5.7.4JunctionBreakdown304
5.7.5Capacitance305
5.7.6TransientEffects305
5.8ReadingList305
5.9ReviewQuestions306
5.10Problems306
viiiContents
Chapter6
AdditionalConsiderations
forDiodes311
6.1Introduction311
6.2NonstepHomojunctions311
*6.2.1LinearlyGradedJunctions314
6.2.2HyperabruptJunctions317
6.3SemiconductorHeterojunctions317
6.3.1TheEnergyBandDiagramsofSemiconductor-SemiconductorHeterojunctions317
6.3.2EffectsofInterfaceStates327
*6.3.3EffectsofLatticeMismatchonHeterojunctions329
6.4Metal-SemiconductorJunctions331
6.4.1IdealMetal-SemiconductorJunctions(ElectronAffinityModel)331
6.4.2InfluenceofInterface-InducedDipoles331
6.4.3TheCurrent-VoltageCharacteristicsofMetal-SemiconductorJunctions334
6.4.4Ohmic(Low-Resistance)Contacts337
6.4.5I-VaCharacteristicsofHeterojunction
Diodes339
*6.5CapacitanceinNonidealJunctionsandHeterojunctions339
6.6Summary340
6.7ReadingList340
6.8References340
6.9ReviewQuestions341
6.10Problems341
SupplementtoPart2
Diodes346
S2.1Introduction346
S2.2DielectricRelaxationTime346
S2.2.1Case1:DielectricRelaxationTimeforInjectionofMajorityCarriers347..
S2.2.2Case2:InjectionofMinorityCarriers349
S2.3JunctionCapacitance350
S2.3.1JunctionCapacitanceinaPrototype(Step)Junction350
S2.3.2JunctionCapacitanceinaNonuniformlyDopedJunction352
S2.3.3Varactors353
S2.3.4Stored-ChargeCapacitanceofShort-BaseDiodes354
S2.4Second-OrderEffectsinSchottkyDiodes356
S2.4.1TunnelingThroughSchottkyBarriers357
S2.4.2BarrierLoweringinSchottkyDiodesDuetotheImageEffect359
S2.5SPICEModelforDiodes361
S2.5.1TheUseofSPICEasaCurveTracer362
S2.5.2TransientAnalysis365
S2.6Summary368
S2.7ReadingList368
S2.8References369
S2.9Problems369
PART3
Field-EffectTransistors373
Chapter7
TheMOSFET385
7.1Introduction385
7.2MOSFETs(Qualitative)385
7.2.1IntroductiontoMOSCapacitors386
7.2.2MOSFETsatEquilibrium(Qualitative)390
7.2.3MOSFETsNotatEquilibrium(Qualitative)392
7.3MOSFETs(Quantitative)403
7.3.1Long-ChannelMOSFETModelwithConstantMobility404
7.3.2MoreRealisticLong-ChannelModels:EffectofFieldsontheMobility417
*7.3.3SeriesResistance432
Contentsix
7.4ComparisonofModelswithExperiment434
7.5Summary435
7.6ReadingList438
7.7References438
7.8ReviewQuestions438
7.9Problems439
Chapter8
AdditionalConsiderations
forFETs442
8.1Introduction442
8.2MeasurementofThresholdVoltageand
Low-FieldMobility443
8.3SubthresholdLeakageCurrent445
8.4ComplementaryMOSFETs(CMOS)448
8.4.1OperationoftheInverter449
*8.4.2MatchingofCMOSdevices450
8.5SwitchinginCMOSInverter
Circuits452
8.5.1EffectofLoadCapacitance452
8.5.2Propagation(Gate)DelayinSwitching
Circuits454
8.5.3Pass-throughCurrentinCMOSSwitching457
8.6MOSFETEquivalentCircuit457
8.6.1Small-SignalEquivalentCircuit458
8.6.2CMOSAmplifiers463
8.7UnityCurrentGainCutoffFrequencyfT463
*8.8Short-ChannelEffects464
8.8.1DependenceofEffectiveChannelLengthonVDS464
8.8.2DependenceofThresholdVoltageontheDrainVoltage466
8.9MOSFETScaling467
8.10SilicononInsulator(SOI)469
8.11OtherFETs473
8.11.1HeterojunctionField-EffectTransistors(HFETs)473
8.11.2MESFETs476
8.11.3JunctionField-EffectTransistors(JFETs)481
8.11.4BulkChannelFETs:Quantitative482
8.12Summary485
8.13ReadingList486
8.14References486
8.15ReviewQuestions487
8.16Problems487
SupplementtoPart3
Field-EffectTransistors491
S3.1Introduction491
S3.2CommentsontheFormulationfortheChannelChargeQch491
S3.2.1EffectofVaryingDepletionWidthontheChannelCharge491
S3.2.2DependenceoftheChannelChargeQchontheLongitudinalField
L493
S3.3ThresholdVoltageforMOSFETs495
S3.3.1FixedCharge497
S3.3.2InterfaceTrappedCharge497
S3.3.3BulkCharge498
S3.3.4EffectofChargesontheThresholdVoltage498
S3.3.5FlatBandVoltage499
S3.3.6ThresholdVoltageControl502
*S3.3.7ChannelQuantumEffects504
S3.4UniversalRelationsforLow-FieldMobility507
S3.5MeasurementofVT509
*S3.6AlternativeMethodtoDetermineVTandμlfApplicabletoLong-Channel
MOSFETs513
S3.7MOSCapacitors514
S3.7.1IdealMOSCapacitance515
S3.7.2TheC-VGCharacteristicsofRealMOSCapacitors520
S3.7.3ParameterAnalysesfromC-VGMeasurements521
xContents
*S3.8MOSCapacitorHybridDiagrams521
*S3.8.1DynamicRandom-AccessMemories(DRAMs)525
*S3.8.2Charge-CoupledDevices(CCDs)527
*S3.9DeviceDegradation530
*S3.9.1LightlyDopedDrain(LDD)MOSFETs534
*S3.10Low-TemperatureOperationofMOSFETs535
*S3.11ApplicationsofSPICEtoMOSFETs538
S3.11.1ExamplesoftheUseofSPICEwithMOSFETs539
S3.11.2DeterminingtheTransientCharacteristicsofaCMOSDigitalInverter543
S3.12Summary545
S3.13ReadingList546
S3.14References546
S3.15ReviewQuestions547
S3.16Problems547
PART4
BipolarJunctionTransistors551
Chapter9
BipolarJunctionDevices:Statics557
9.1Introduction557
9.2OutputCharacteristics(Qualitative)561
9.3CurrentGain563
9.4ModelofaPrototypeBJT564
9.4.1CollectionEfficiencyM567
9.4.2InjectionEfficiencyγ568
9.4.3BaseTransportEfficiencyαT570
9.5DopingGradientsinBJTs575
9.5.1TheGraded-BaseTransistor578
9.5.2EffectofBaseFieldonβ582
9.6TheBasicEbers-MollDCModel583
9.7CurrentCrowdingandBaseResistanceinBJTs586
9.8BaseWidthModulation(EarlyEffect)590
9.9AvalancheBreakdown594
9.10HighInjection594
9.11BasePush-out(Kirk)Effect595
9.12RecombinationintheEmitter-BaseJunction597
9.13Summary598
9.14ReadingList599
9.15References599
9.16ReviewQuestions600
9.17Problems601
Chapter10
Time-DependentAnalysisofBJTs607
10.1Introduction607
10.2Ebers-MollACModel607
10.3Small-SignalEquivalentCircuits609
10.3.1Hybrid-PiModels611
10.4Stored-ChargeCapacitanceinBJTs615
10.5FrequencyResponse620
10.5.1UnityCurrentGainFrequencyfT621
10.5.2BaseTransitTime623
10.5.3Base-CollectorTransitTime,tBC624
10.5.4MaximumOscillationFrequencyfmax625
10.6High-FrequencyTransistors625
10.6.1DoublePolySiSelf-AlignedTransistor625
10.7BJTSwitchingTransistor628
10.7.1OutputLow-to-HighTransitionTime629
Contentsxi
10.7.2Schottky-ClampedTransistor631
10.7.3Emitter-CoupledLogic632
10.8BJTs,MOSFETs,andBiMOS635
10.8.1ComparisonofBJTsandMOSFETs635
10.8.2BiMOS636
10.9Summary638
10.10ReadingList639
10.11References639
10.12ReviewQuestions639
10.13Problems639
SupplementtoPart4BipolarDevices642
S4.1Introduction642
S4.2HeterojunctionBipolarTransistors(HBTs)642
S4.2.1UniformlyDopedHBT644
S4.2.2Graded-CompositionHBT646
S4.3ComparisonofSi-Base,SiGe-Base,andGaAs-BaseHBTs649
S4.4Thyristors(npnpSwitchingDevices)650
S4.4.1Four-LayerDiodeSwitch650
S4.4.2Two-TransistorModelofannpnpSwitch652
S4.5SiliconControlledRectifiers(SCRs)654
S4.6ParasiticpnpnSwitchinginCMOSCircuits658
S4.7ApplicationsofSPICEtoBJTs658
S4.7.1ParasiticEffects661
S4.7.2LowtoMediumCurrents661
S4.7.3HighCurrents663
S4.8ExamplesoftheApplicationofSPICEtoBJTs664
S4.9Summary669
S4.10References670
S4.11ReviewQuestions670
S4.12Problems671
PART5
OptoelectronicDevices673
Chapter11
OptoelectronicDevices675
11.1IntroductionandPreview675
11.2Photodetectors675
11.2.1GenericPhotodetector675
*11.2.2SolarCells683
11.2.3Thep-i-n(PIN)Photodetector689
11.2.4AvalanchePhotodiodes691
11.3Light-EmittingDiodes692
11.3.1SpontaneousEmissioninaForward-BiasedJunction692
*11.3.2IsoelectronicTraps694
11.3.3BlueLEDsandWhiteLEDs696
11.3.4InfraredLEDs696
11.4LaserDiodes702
11.4.1OpticalGain703
11.4.2Feedback706
11.4.3Gain+Feedback
Laser709
11.4.4LaserStructures710
11.4.5OtherSemiconductorLaserMaterials714
11.5ImageSensors715
11.5.1Charge-CoupledImageSensors715
11.5.2MOSImageSensors717
11.6Summary718
11.7ReadingList719
11.8References719
11.9ReviewQuestions719
11.10Problems720
Appendices
AppendixAConstants724
AppendixBListofSymbols725
PREFACE...