Preface xv
PART 1 Introduction to Software Engineering 1
Chapter 1 The Scope of Software Engineering 3
l.l Historical Aspects 4
l.2 Economic Aspects 7
l.3 Maintenance Aspects 8
l.4 Specification and Design Aspects l3
l.5 Team Programming Aspects 15
1.6 The Object-Oriented Paradigm l7
l.7 Terminology 2l
Chapter Review 23
For Further Reading 24
Problems 25
References 26
Chapter 2 The Software Process 30
2.1 Client, Developer, and User 32
2.2 Requirements Phase 33
2.2.l Requirements Phase Testing 34
2.2.2 Requirements Phase Documentation 35
2.3 Specification Phase 35
2.3.l Specification Phase Testing 37
2.3.2 Specification Phase Documentation 38
2.4 Design Phase 38
2.4.l Design Phase Testing 39
2.4.2 Design Phase Documentation 40
2.5 Implementation Phase 40
2.5.l Implementation Phase Testing 40
2.5.2 Implementation Phase Documentation 40
2.6 Integration Phase 41
2.6.l Integration Phase Testing 4l
2.6.2 Integration Phase Documentation 42
2.7 Maintenance Phase 42
2.7.l Maintenance Phase Testing 43
2.7.2 Maintenance Phase Documentation 43
2.8 Retirement 43
2.9 Problems with Software Production: Essence and Accidents 44
2.9.l Complexity 45
2.9.2 Conformity 47
2.9.3 Changeability 48
2.9.4 Invisibility 49
2.9.5 No Si1verBullet? 50
2.l0 Improving the Software Process 5l
2.l1 Capability Maturity Models 5l
2.l2 Other Software Process Improvement Initiatives 54
2.l3 Costs and Benefits of Software Process Improvement 55
Chanter Review 57
For Further Reading 58
Problems 59
References 60
Chapter 3 Software Life-Cycle Models 64
3.l Build-and-Fix Model 64
3.2 Waterfall Model 65
3.2.l Analysis of the Waterfall Model 68
3.3 Rapid Prototyping Model 70
3.3.l Integrating the Waterfall and Rapid Prototyping Models 7l
3.4 Incremental Model 72
3.4.l Analysis of the Incremental Model 73
3.5 Extreme Programming 75
3.6 Synchronize-and-Stabilize Model 77
3.7 Spiral Model 78
3.7.l Analysis of the Spiral Model 82
3.8 Object-Oriented Life-Cycle Models 82
3.9 Comparison of Life-Cycle Models 84
Chapter Review 86
For Further Reading 86
Problems 87
References 87
Chapter 4 Teams 90
4.l Team Organization 90
4.2 Democratic Team Approach 92
4.2.l Analysis of the Democratic Team Approach 93
4.3 Classical Chief Programmer Team Approach 93
4.3.l The New York Times Project 95
4.3.2 Impracticality of the Classical Chief
Programmer Team Approach 96
4.4 Beyond Chief Programmer and Democratic Teams 97
4.5 Synchronize-and-Stabilize Teams l0l
4.6 Extreme Programming Teams l02
Chapter Review l03
For Further Reading 104
Problems l04
References l05
Chapter 5 The Tools Of the Trade 106
5.l Stepwise Refinement 106
5.l.l Stepwise Refinement Example l07
5.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis ll3
5.3 Software Metrics ll4
5.4 CASE ll5
5.5 Taxonomy of CASE ll6
5.6 Scope of CASE ll8
5.7 Software Versions l22
5.7.l Revisions l22
5.7.2 Variations l23
5.8 Configuration Control l24
5.8.l Configuration Control during Product Maintenance l26
5.8.2 Baselines l27
5.8.3 Configuration Control during Product Development l27
5.9 Build Tools 128
5.l0 Productivity Gains with CASE Technology l29
Chapter Review l3l
For Further Reading l3l
Problems l32
References l33
Chapter 6 Testing 136
6.l Quality Issues l37
6.l.l Software Quality Assurance l37
6.l.2 Managerial Independence l38
6.2 Nonexecution-Based Testing l39
6.2.l Walkthroughs l39
6.2.2 Managing Walkthroughs l40
6.2.3 Inspections l4l
6.2.4 Comparison of Inspections and Walkthroughs l43
6.2.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Reviews l44
6.2.6 Metrics for Inspections l44
6.3 Execution-Based Testing l45
6.4 What Should Be Tested? l45
6.4.l Utility l46
6.4.2 Reliability l47
6.4.3 Robustness l47
6.4.4 Performance l48
6.4.5 Correctness l49
6.5 Testing versus Correctness Proofs l5l
6.5.l Example of a Correctness Proofs l5l
6.5.2 Correctness Proof Case Study l54
6.5.3 Correctness Proof and Software Engineering l55
6.6 Who Should Perform Execution-Based Testing? l58
6.7 When Testing Stops 160
Chapter Review l60
For Further Reading l6l
Problems l62
References 164
Chapter 7 From Modules to Objects 167
7.l What Is a Module? l67
7.2 Cohesion l7l
7.2.l Coincidental Cohesion l7l
7.2.2 Logical Cohesion l72
7.2.3 Temporal Cohesion l73
7.2.4 Procedural Cohesion l74
7.2.5 Communicational Cohesion l74
7.2.6 Functional Cohesion l75
7.2.7 Informational Cohesion l75
7.2.8 Cohesion Example l76
7.3 Coupling 177
7.3.l Content Coupling l78
7.3.2 Common Coupling l78
7.3.3 Control Coupling l80
7.3.4 Stamp Coupling l80
7.3.5 Data Coupling l82
7.3.6 Coupling Example l82
7.3.7 The Importance of Coupling l82
7.4 Data Encapsulation l84
7.4.l Data Encapsulation and Product Development l86
7.4.2 Data Encapsulation and Product Maintenance l88
7.5 Abstract Data Types l94
7.6 Infromation Hiding l95
7.7 Objects l98
7.8 Inheritance, Polymorphism, and Dynamic Binding 20l
7.9 Cohesion and Coupling of Objects 203
7.l0 The Object-Oriented Paradigm 204
Chapter Review 207
For Further Reading 207
Problems 208
References 209
Chapter 8 Reusability Portability, and Interoperability 212
8.l Reuse Concepts 2l2
8.2 Impediments to Reuse 2l4
8.3 Reuse Case Studies 216
8.3.l Raytheon Missi1e Systems Division 2l6
8.3.2 Toshiba software Factory 2l7
8.3.3 NASA Software 2l8
8.3.4 GTE Data Services 2l9
8.3.5 Hewlett-Packard 220
8.3.6 European Space Agency 22l
8.4 Objects and Reuse 222
8.5 Reuse during the Design and Implementation Phases 222
8.5.l Design Reuse 222
8.5.2 Application Frameworks 224
8.5.3 Design Patterns 225
8.5.4 Software Architecture 229
8.6 Reuse and Maintenance 230
8.7 Portability 23l
8.7.l Ware Incompatibilities 232
8.7.2 Operating Systems Incompatibilities 233
8.7.3 Numerical Software Incompatibilities 233
8.7.4 Compiler Incompatibilities 235
8.8 Why Portability? 239
8.9 Techniques for Achieving Portability 240
8.9.l Portable System Software 240
8.9.2 Portable Application Software 24l
8.9.3 Portable Data 242
8.l0 Interoperability 243
8.l0.l COM 243
8.l0.2 CORBA 244
8.l0.3 Comparing COM and CORBA 245
8.ll Future Trends in Interoperability 245
Chapter Review For Further Reading 247
Problems 248
References 250
Chapter 9 Planning and Estimating 257
9.l Planning and the Software Process 257
9.2 Estimating Duration and Cost 259
9.2.l Metrics for the Size of a Product 260
9.2.2 Techniques of Cost Estimation 264
9.2.3 Intermediate COCOMO 267
9.2.4 COCOMO II 270
9.2.5 Tracking Duration and Cost Estimates 272
9.3 Components of a Software Project Management Plan 272
9.4 software Project Management Plan Framework 274
9.5 IEEE Software Project Management Plan 274
9.6 Planning Testing 278
9.7 Planning Object-Oriented Projects 279
9.8 Training Requirements 280
9.9 Documentation Standards 281
9.l0 CASE Tools for Planning and Estimating 282
9.ll Testing the Software Project Management Plan 282
Chapter Review 283
For Further Reading 283
Problems 284
References 285
PART 2 The Phases of the Software Life Cycle 289
Chapter 1O Requirements Phase 290
l0.l Requirements Elicitation 29l
l0.l.l Interviews 29l
l0.l.2 Scenarios 292
l0.l.3 Other Requirements Elicitation Techniques 293
l0.2 Requirements Analysis 294
l0.3 Rapid Prototyping 294
l0.4 Human Factors 296
l0.5 Rapid Prototyping as a Specification Technique 298
l0.6 Reusing the Rapid Prototype 300
l0.7 Management Implications of the Rapid Prototyping Model 302
l0.8 Experiences with Rapid Prototyping 304
l0.9 Techniques for Requirements Elicitation and Analysis 305
l0.l0 Testing during the Requirements Phase 305
10.ll CASE Tools for the Requirements Phase 306
l0.l2 Metrics for the Requirements Phase 307
10.l3 Object-Oriented Requirements? 308
10.l4 Air Gourmet Case Study: Requirements Phase 308
10.l5 Air Gourmet Case Study: Rapid Prototype 3ll
l0.l6 Challenges of the Requirements Phase 3l3
Chapter Review 3l5
For Further Reading 3l5
Problems 316
References 3l7
Chapter 11 Specification Phase 319
ll.l The Specification Document 3l9
ll.2 Informal Specifications 32l
ll.2.l Case Study: Text Processing 322
ll.3 Structured Systems Analysis 323
1l.3.l Sally's Software Shop 323
l1.4 Other Semiformal Techniques 33l
ll.5 Entity-Relationship Modeling 332
1l.6 Finite State Machines 335
ll.6.l Elevator Problem: Finite State Machines 336
ll.7 Petri Nets 34l
ll.7.l Elevator Problem: Petri Nets 343
ll.8 Z 346
ll.8.l Elevator Problem: Z 347
ll.8.2 Analysis of Z 349
ll.9 Other Formal Techniques 35l
ll.l0 Comparison of Specification Techniques 352
ll.ll Testing during the Specification Phase 353
ll.l2 CASE Tools for the Specification Phase 354
ll.l3 Metrics for the Specification Phase 355
ll.l4 Air Gourmet Case Study: Structured Systems Analysis 355
ll.l5 Air Gourmet Case Study: Software Project Management Plan 357
ll.l6 Challenges of the Specification Phase 358
Chapter Review 358
For Further Reading 359
Problems 360
References 362
Chapter 12 Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 366
l2.l Object-Oriented Analysis 366
l2.2 Elevator Problem: Object-Oriented Analysis 369
l2.3 Use-Case Modeling 369
l2.4 Class Modeling 37l
l2.4.l Noun Extraction 372
l2.4.2 CRC Cards 374
l2.5 Dynamic Modeling 375
l2.6 Testing during the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 378
l2.7 CASE Tools for the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 383
l2.8 Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Oriented Analysis 383
l2.9 Challenges of the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 390
Chapter Review 39l
For Further Reading 39l
Problems 392
References 393
Chapter 13 Design Phase 395
l3.l Design and Abstraction 395
l3.2 Action-Oriented Design 396
l3.3 Data Flow Analysis 397
l3.3.l Data Flow Analysis Example 398
l3.3.2 Extensions 402
13.4 Transaction Analysis 403
13.5 Data-Oriented Design 406
l3.6 Object-Oriented Design 406
l3.7 Elevator Problem: Object-Oriented Design 407
13.8 Formal Techniques for Detailed Design 415
l3.9 Real-Time Design Techniques 4l6
l3.10 Testing during the Design Phase 4l8
13.l1 CASE Tools for the Design Phase 4l8
l3.l2 Metrics for the Design Phase 4l9
l3.13 Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Oriented Design 420
l3.l4 Challenges of the Design Phase 429
Chapter Review 429
For Further Reading 430
Problems 43l
References 43l
Chapter 14 Implementation Phase 434
14.l Choice of Programming Language 434
l4.2 Fourth-Generation Languages 437
l4.3 Good Programming Practice 440
l4.4 Coding Standards 445
l4.5 Module Reuse 446
l4.6 Module Test Case Selection 447
l4.6.l Testing to Specifications versus Testing to Code 447
l4.6.2 Feasibility of Testing to Specifications 447
l4.6.3 Feasibility of Testing to Code 448
l4.7 Black-Box Module-Testing Techniques 451
l4.7.l Equivalence Testing and Boundary Value Analysis 45l
l4.7.2 Functional Testing 452
l4.8 Glass-Box Module-Testing Techniques 454
l4.8.l Structural Testing: Statement, Branch, and Path Coverage 454
l4.8.2 Complexity Metrics 456
l4.9 Code Walkthroughs and Inspections 458
l4.l0 Comparison of Module-Testing Techniques 458
l4.ll Cleanroom 459
l4.12 Potential Problems When Testing Objects 460
l4.l3 Management Aspects of Module Testing 463
l4.l4 When to Rewrite Rather than Debug a Module 463
l4.l5 CASE Tools for the Implementation Phase 465
l4.l6 Air Gourmet Case Study: Black-Box Test Cases 465
l4.l7 Challenges of the Implementation Phase 467
Chapter Review 467
For Further Reading 468
Problems 469
References 470
Chapter 15 Implementation and Integration Phase 474
l5.l Introduction to Implementation and Integration 474
l5.l.l Top-down Implementation and Integration 475
l5.l.2 Bottom-up Implementation and Integration 477
l5.l.3 Sandwich Implementation and Integration 478
l5.l.4 Implementation and Integration of Object-Oriented Products 480
l5.l.5 Management Issues during the Implementation and Integration Phase 480
l5.2 Testing during the Implementation and Integration Phase 48l
l5.3 Integration Testing of Graphical User Interfaces 48l
l5.4 Product Testing 482
l5.5 Acceptance Testing 483
l5.6 CASE Tools for the Implementation and Integration Phase 484
l5.6 CASE Tools for the Complete Software Process 484
l5.8 Integrated Environments 485
l5.9 Environments for Business Applications 486
l5.l0 Public Tool Infrastructures 487
l5.ll Potential Problems with Environments 487
l5.l2 Metrics for the Implementation and Integration Phase 488
l5.l3 Air Gourmet Case Study: Implementation and Integration Phase 488
l5.l4 Challenges of the Implementation and Integration Phase 489
Chapter Review 489
For Further Reading 490
Problems 490
References 492
Chapter 16 Maintenance Phase 493
16.1 Why Maintenance Is Necessary 493
16.2 What Is Required of Maintenance Programmers 494
l6.3 Maintenance Case Study 497
l6.4 Management of Maintenance 498
l6.4.l Fault Reports 498
l6.4.2 Authorizing Changes to the Product 499
l6.4.3 Ensuring Maintainability 500
l6.4.4 Problem of Repeated Maintenance 500
l6.5 Maintenance of Object-Oriented Software 501
l6.6 Maintenance Skills versus Development Skills 504
l6.7 Reverse Engineering 505
16.8 Testing during the Maintenance Phase 506
l6.9 CASE Tools for the Maintenance Phase 507
l6.l0 Metrics for the Maintenance Phase 507
l6.l1 Air Gourmet Case Study: Maintenance Phase 508
16.l2 Challenges of the Maintenance Phase 508
Chapter Review 509
For Further Reading 509
Problems 510
References 51l
Appendix A Broadlands Area Children's Hospital 513
Appendix B Software Engineering Resources 518
Appendix C Air Gourmet Case Study: C Rapid Prototype 520
Appendix D Air Gourmet Case Study: Java Rapid Prototype 521
Appendix E Air Gourmet Case Study: Structured Systems Analysis 522
Appendix F Air Gourmet Case Study: Software Project Management Plan 529
Appendix G Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Object-Oriented Analysis 534
Appendix H Air Gourmet Case Study: Design for C++ Implementation 535
Appendix I Air Gourmet Case Study: Design for Java Implementation 560
Appendix J Air Gourmet Case Study: Black-Box Test Cases 582
Appendix K Air Gourmet Case Study: C++ Source Code 588
Appendix L Air Gourmet Case Study: Java Source Code 589
Bibliography 590
Author Index 617
Subject Index 623
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