PREFACE
1 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 3
WHAT MAKES PSYCHOLOGY UNIQUE？ 4
Definitions 4
The Goals of Psychology 5
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN PSYCHOLOGY HELP FIND ME A CAREER？ 8
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY 9
Psychology’s Historical Foundations 9
Current Psychological Perspectives 11
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DO FRIENDSHIPS END？ 16
WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO 17
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 19
Study Strategies 19
Study Techniques 20
Special Features 20
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 21
KEY TERMS 21
2 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 25
THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH 26
Observer Biases and Operational Definitions 27
Experimental Methods：Alternative Explanations and the Need for Controls 30
Correlational Methods 33
Subliminal Influence？ 34
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN SURVEY RESEARCH AFFECT YOUR ATTITUDES？ 36
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT 37
Achieving Reliability and Validity 37
Self-Report Measures 37
Behavioral Measures and Observations 38
ETHICAL ISSUES IN HUMAN AND ANIMAL RESEARCH 40
Informed Consent 40
Risk/Gain Assessment 41
Intentional Deception 41
Debriefing 41
Issues in Animal Research 41
BECOMING A WISER RESEARCH CONSUMER 42
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU EVALUATE PSYCHOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON THE WEB？ 43
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 44
KEY TERMS 44
STATISTICAL SUPPLEMENT 46
UNDERSTANDING STATISTICS：ANALYZING DATA AND FORMING CONCLUSIONS 46
ANALYZING THE DATA 47
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 48
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 51
BECOMING A WISE CONSUMER OF STATISTICS 53
KEY TERMS 53
3 THE BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY BASES OF BEHAVIOR 55
HEREDITY AND BEHAVIOR 56
Evolution and Natural Selection 57
Variation in the Human Genotype 59
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ACTION 63
The Neuron 63
Action Potentials 65
Synaptic Transmission 67
Neurotransmitters and Their Functions 68
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR 70
Eavesdropping on the Brain 70
The Nervous System 74
Brain Structures and Their Functions 75
Hemispheric Lateralization 81
The Endocrine System 84
Plasticity and Neurogenesis：Our Changing Brains 85
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHAT DOES “IT’S GENETIC” MEAN？ 71
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES MUSIC HAVE AN IMPACT ON HOW YOU FEEL？ 87
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 88
KEY TERMS 89
4 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 93
SENSING, ORGANIZING, IDENTIFYING, AND RECOGNIZING 94
The Proximal and Distal Stimuli 95
Reality, Ambiguity, and Illusions 97
SENSORY KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD 99
Psychophysics 99
From Physical Events to Mental Events 102
THE VISUAL SYSTEM 103
The Human Eye 103
The Pupil and the Lens 103
The Retina 104
Processes in the Brain 105
Seeing Color 108
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN TECHNOLOGY RESTORE SIGHT？ 108
HEARING 112
The Physics of Sound 112
Psychological Dimensions of Sound 112
The Physiology of Hearing 113
YOUR OTHER SENSES 117
Smell 117
Taste 117
Touch and Skin Senses 118
The Vestibular and Kinesthetic Senses 119
Pain 120
ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES IN PERCEPTION 121
Attentional Processes 121
Principles of Perceptual Grouping 124
Spatial and Temporal Integration 125
Motion Perception 126
Depth Perception 126
Perceptual Constancies 129
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY IS EATING“HOT”FOOD PAINFUL？ 122
IDENTIFICATION AND RECOGNITION PROCESS 131
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes 131
The Influence of Contexts and Expectations 133
Final Lessons 134
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 134
KEY TERMS 135
5 MIND, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND ALTERNATE STATES 139
THE CONTENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 140
Awareness and Consciousness 140
Studying the Contents of Consciousness 142
THE FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 143
The Uses of Consciousness 143
Studying the Functions of Consciousness 144
SLEEP AND DREAMS 145
Circadian Rhythms 145
The Sleep Cycle 146
Why Sleep 148
Sleep Disorders 148
Dreams：Theater of the Mind 150
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO YOU GET ENOUGH SLEEP？ 150
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 152
Lucid Dreaming 153
Hypnosis 153
Meditation 155
Religious Ecstasy 156
MIND-ALTERING DRUGS 157
Dependence and Addiction 157
Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs 158
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES ECSTASY HARM THE BRAIN？ 160
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 162
KEY TERMS 162
6 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 165
THE STUDY OF LEARNING 166
What Is Learning？ 166
Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis 167
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING：LEARNING PREDICTABLE SIGNALS 168
Pavlov’s Surprising Observation 168
Processes of Conditioning 170
Focus on Acquisition 172
Applications of Classical Conditioning 174
OPERANT CONDITIONING：LEARNING ABOUT CONSEQUENCES 176
The Law of Effect 176
Experimental Analysis of Behavior 178
Reinforcement Contingencies 179
Properties of Reinforcers 182
Schedules of Reinforcement 183
Shaping 186
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AFFECT CANCER TREATMENT？ 177
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：TO SPANK OR NOT TO SPANK 184
BIOLOGY AND LEARNING 187
Instinctual Drift 187
Taste-Aversion Learning 188
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LEARNING 190
Animal Cognition 190
Observational Learning 192
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 195
KEY TERMS 195
7 MEMORY 199
WHAT IS MEMORY？ 200
Types of Memories 200
An Overview of Memory Processes 202
MEMORY USE FOR THE SHORT-TERM 203
Iconic Memory 204
Short-Term Memory 205
Working Memory 207
LONG-TERM MEMORY：ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL 209
Retrieval Cues 209
Context and Encoding 210
The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval 213
Why We Forget 215
Improving Memory for Unstructured Information 217
Metamemory 218
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN MEMORY RESEARCH HELP YOU PREPARE FOR EXAMS？ 219
STRUCTURES IN LONG-TERM MEMORY 220
Memory Structures 220
Remembering as a Reconstructive Process 224
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MEMORY 227
Searching for the Engram 227
Amnesia 228
Brain Imaging 229
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AFFECT MEMORY？ 227
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 231
KEY TERMS 232
8 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 235
STUDYING COGNITION 237
Discovering the Processes of Mind 237
Mental Processes and Mental Resources 237
LANGUAGE USE 240
Language Production 240
Language Understanding 243
Language and Evolution 247
Language,Thought,and Culture 248
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY AND HOW DO PEOPLE LIE？ 249
VISUAL COGNITION 250
Using Visual Representations 250
Combining Verbal and Visual Representations 252
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING 255
Problem Solving 255
Deductive Reasoning 257
Inductive Reasoning 260
JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 262
Heuristics and Judgment 262
The Psychology of Decision Making 265
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN POLITICAL EXPERTS PREDICT THE FUTURE? 269
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 270
KEY TERMS 270
9 INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT 273
WHAT IS ASSESSMENT？ 274
History of Assessment 274
Basic Features of Formal Assessment 275
INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT 278
The Origins of Intelligence Testing 278
IQ Tests 278
Extremes of Intelligence 280
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 282
Psychometric Theories of Intelligence 282
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 284
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence 285
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN YOU TRUST ASSESSMENT ON THE WEB？ 283
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE MATTER？ 287
THE POLITICS OF INTELLIGENCE 287
The History of Group Comparisons 288
Heredity and IQ 289
Environments and IQ 291
Culture and the Validity of IQ Tests 293
CREATIVITY 295
Assessing Creativity and the Link to Intelligence 295
Extremes of Creativity 295
ASSESSMENT AND SOCIETY 297
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 299
KEY TERMS 299
10 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 303
STUDYING DEVELOPMENT 304
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 306
Prenatal and Childhood Development 306
Physical Development in Adolescence 310
Physical Changes in Adulthood 311
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 312
Piaget’s Insights Into Mental Development 312
Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development 314
Cognitive Development in Adulthood 318
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WILL YOUR BRAIN WORK DIFFERENTLY AS YOU AGE？ 320
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE 321
Perceiving Speech and Perceiving Words 321
Learning Word Meanings 322
Acquiring Grammar 323
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 324
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 325
Social Development in Childhood 326
Social Development in Adolescence 331
Social Development in Adulthood 333
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES DAY CARE AFFECT CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT？330
SEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES 336
Sex Differences 336
Gender Identity and Gender Roles 337
MORAL DEVELOPMENT 338
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 338
Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning 340
LEARNING TO AGE SUCCESSFULLY 341
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 342
KEY TERMS 343
11 MOTIVATION 347
UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION 348
Functions of Motivational Concepts 348
Sources of Motivation 349
A Hierarchy of Needs 352
EATING 353
The Physiology of Eating 354
The Psychology of Eating 355
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES GENETICS CONTRIBUTE TO OBESITY？ 356
SEXUAL BEHAVIORS 360
Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors 360
Human Sexual Arousal and Response 362
The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors 363
Sexual Norms 364
Homosexuality 366
MOTIVATION FOR PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT 370
Need for Achievement 368
Attributions for Success and Failure 369
Work and Organizational Psychology 371
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES MOTIVATION AFFECT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT·373
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 374
KEY TERMS 374
12 EMOTION, STRESS, AND HEALTH 377
EMOTIONS 378
Basic Emotions and Culture 378
Theories of Emotion 381
Functions of Emotions 385
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE HAPPIER THAN OTHERS？ 388
STRESS OF LIVING 389
Physiological Stress Reactions 389
Psychological Stress Reactions 392
Coping with Stress 397
Positive Effects of Stress 401
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 402
The Biopsychosocial Model of Health 403
Health Promotion 403
Treatment 406
Personality and Health 409
Job Burnout and the Health-Care System 410
A Toast to Your Health 411
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY HELP YOU BE A HEALTHY PERSON BY 2010？ 407
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 413
KEY TERMS 413
13 UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 417
TYPE AND TRAIT PERSONALITY THEORIES 418
Categorizing by Types 418
Describing with Traits 419
Traits and Heritability 423
Do Traits Predict Behaviors？ 423
Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories 425
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES 425
Freudian Psychoanalysis 425
Evaluation of Freudian Theory 429
Extending Psychodynamic Theories 430
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE SHY？ 426
HUMANISTIC THEORIES 432
Features of Humanistic Theories 432
Evaluation of Humanistic Theories 433
SOCIAL-LEARNING AND COGNITIVE THEORIES 434
Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory 435
Bandura’s Cognitive Social-Learning Theory 436
Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory 438
Evaluation of Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories 438
SELF THEORIES 439
Dynamic Aspects of Self-Concepts 439
Self-Esteem and Self-Presentation 440
The Cultural Construction of Self 441
Evaluation of Self Theories 442
COMPARING PERSONALITY THEORIES 443
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHO ARE YOU ON THE INTERNET？ 443
ASSESSING PERSONALITY 444
Objective Tests 444
Projective Tests 446
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 448
KEY TERMS 448
14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 451
THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 452
Deciding What Is Abnormal 452
The Problem of Objectivity 454
Classifying Psychological Disorders 454
The Etiology of Psychopathology 457
ANXIETY DISORDERS 459
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 459
Panic Disorder 459
Phobias 460
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 460
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 461
Causes of Anxiety Disorders 462
MOOD DISORDERS 464
Major Depressive Disorder 464
Bipolar Disorder 465
Causes of Mood Disorders 465
Gender Differences in Depression 467
Suicide 468
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN WE PINPOINT INTERACTIONS OF NATURE AND NURTURE？ 469
PERSONALITY DISORDERS 470
Borderline Personality Disorder 470
Antisocial Personality Disorder 471
SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS 472
Somatoform Disorders 472
Dissociative Disorders 473
SCHIZOPHRENIC DISORDERS 474
Major Types of Schizophrenia 475
Causes of Schizophrenia 476
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：IS “INSANITY” REALLY A DEFENSE？ 480
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS OF CHILDHOOD 480
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 481
Autistic Disorder 481
THE STIGMA OF MENTAL ILLNESS 482
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 483
KEY TERMS 484
15 THERAPIES FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 487
THE THERAPEUTIC CONTEXT 488
Goals and Major Therapies 488
Therapists and Therapeutic Settings 489
Historical Perspectives on Institutional Treatment 490
PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES 491
Freudian Psychoanalysis 491
Later Psychodynamic Therapies 493
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：ARE LIVES HAUNTED BY REPRESSED MEMORIES? 494
BEHAVIOR THERAPIES 494
Counterconditioning 495
Contingency Management 496
Social-Learning Therapy 498
Generalization Techniques 499
COGNITIVE THERAPIES 501
Changing False Beliefs 501
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 502
HUMANISTIC THERAPIES 502
Client-Centered Therapy 503
Gestalt Therapy 503
GROUP THERAPIES 504
Couple and Family Therapy 504
Community Support Groups 505
BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES 506
Drug Therapy 506
Psychosurgery 508
EC and rTMS 509
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES THERAPY AFFECT BRAIN ACTIVITY? 510
TREATMENT EVALUATION AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES 511
Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness 511
Prevention Strategies 512
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 513
KEY TERMS 514
16 SOCIAL COGNITION AND RELATIONSHIPS 517
CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY 518
The Origins of Attribution Theory 519
The Fundamental Attribution Error 519
Self-Serving Biases 520
Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 521
Behaviors That Confirm Expectations 522
ATTITUDES, ATTITUDE CHANGE, AND ACTION 524
Attitudes and Behaviors 524
Processes of Persuasion 525
Persuasion by Your Own Actions 527
Compliance 529
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DO LATE-NIGHT TV ADS REALLY WORK？ 532
PREJUDICE 531
Origins of Prejudice 531
Effects of Stereotypes 533
Reversing Prejudice 534
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 536
Liking 536
Loving 537
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN LASTING RELATIONSHIPS FORM ON THE INTERNET? 540
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 541
KEY TERMS 541
17 SOCIAL PROCESSES, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE 545
THE POWER OF THE SITUATION 546
Roles and Rules 546
Social Norms 548
Conformity 549
Decision Making in Groups 552
Situational Power：Candid Camera Revelations 552
ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR 553
The Roots of Altruism 553
Motives for Prosocial Behavior 555
The Effects of the Situation of Prosocial Behavior 556
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU GET PEOPLE TO VOLUNTEER? 558
AGGRESSION 559
Evolutionary Perspectives 559
Individual Differences 560
Situational Influences 561
Cultural Constraints 563
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT AND PEACE 566
Obedience to Authority 566
The Psychology of Genocide and War 569
Peace Psychology 572
A PERSONAL ENDNOTE 574
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW MIGHT RECONCILIATION BE POSSIBLE? 575
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 576
KEY TERMS 576
ANSWER APPENDIX A-1
GLOSSARY G-1
REFERENCES R-1
NAME INDEX N-1
SUBJECT INDEX S-1
CREDITS C-1
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