Chapter 1 Introducing Social Psychology 3
Part One Social Thinking
Chapter 2 The Self in a Social World 33
Chapter 3 Social Beliefs and Judgments 75
Chapter 4 Behavior and Attitudes 119
Part Two Social Influence
Chapter 5 Genes, Culture, and Gender 153
Chapter 6 Conformity and Obedience 187
Chapter 7 Persuasion 223
Chapter 8 Group Influence 261
Part Three Social Relations
Chapter 9 Prejudice: Disliking Others 301
Chapter 10 Aggression: Hurting Others 343
Chapter 11 Attraction and Intimacy: Liking and Loving Others381
Chapter 12 Helping 427
Chapter 13 Conflict and Peacemaking 467
Part Four Applying Social Psychology
Chapter 14 Social Psychology in the Clinic 509
Chapter 15 Social Psychology in Court 541
Chapter 16 Social Psychology and the Sustainable Future 575
Epilogue 593
Credits C-1
References R-1
Name Index N-1
Subject Index/Glossary S-1
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Chapter 1
Introducing Social Psychology 3
What Is Social Psychology? 3
Social Psychology’s Big Ideas 5
We construct our social reality 5
Our social intuitions are often powerful but
sometimes perilous 6
Social influences shape our behavior 7
Personal attitudes and dispositions also shape behavior 8
Social behavior is biologically rooted 8
Social psychology’s principles are applicable in
everyday life 9
Social Psychology and Human Values 9
Obvious ways values enter psychology 9
Not-so-obvious ways values enter psychology 10
I knew it all along: Is social psychology
simply common sense? 13
Focus On: I knew it all along 15
Research Methods: How We Do
Social Psychology 17
Forming and testing hypotheses 17
Correlational research: Detecting natural associations 18
Experimental research: Searching for cause and effect 23
Generalizing from laboratory to life 27
Postscript: Why I Wrote This Book 29
Part One Social Thinking
Chapter 2
The Self in a Social World 33
Spotlights and Illusions 34
Research Close-Up: On being nervous
about looking nervous 35
Self-Concept: Who Am I? 37
At the center of our worlds: Our sense of self 37
Development of the social self 38
Self and culture 40
Self-knowledge 44
The Inside Story: Hazel Markus and
Shinobu Kitayama on cultural psychology 45
Research Close-Up: An illusion of
conscious will 47
Self-Esteem 51
Self-esteem motivation 52
The “dark side” of self-esteem 53
Perceived Self-Control 55
Self-efficacy 55
Locus of control 56
Learned helplessness versus self-determination 57
Self-Serving Bias 61
Explaining positive and negative events 61
Can we all be better than average? 62
Focus On: Self-serving bias—How do I
love me? Let me count the ways 63
Unrealistic optimism 64
False consensus and uniqueness 65
Explaining self-serving bias 66
Reflections on self-esteem and self-serving bias 67
Self-Presentation 69
False modesty 70
Self-handicapping 70
Impression management 71
Postscript: Twin Truths—The Perils of Pride,
the Powers of Positive Thinking 73
Chapter 3
Social Beliefs and Judgments 75
Perceiving Our Social World 76
Priming 76
Perceiving and interpreting events 77
Belief perseverance 80
Constructing memories of ourselves and
our worlds 81
Judging Our Social World 84
Intuitive judgments 84
Overconfidence 86
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts 90
Illusory thinking 94
Research Close-Up: Negative emotions
make pessimistic investors 96
Moods and judgments 97
Explaining Our Social World 98
Attributing causality: To the person or the situation 99
The fundamental attribution error 102
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Expectations of Our Social World 109
Focus On: The self-fulfilling psychology of
the stock market 110
Teacher expectations and student performance 110
Getting from others what we expect 112
Conclusions 114
Focus On: How journalists think:
Cognitive bias in newsmaking 116
Postscript: Reflecting on Illusory Thinking 117
Chapter 4
Behavior and Attitudes 119
How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict Our
Behavior? 120
When attitudes predict behavior 121
The Inside Story: Mahzarin R. Banaji on
discovering experimental social psychology 123
Research Close-Up: You’ve not got mail: Prejudicial
attitudes predict discriminatory behavior 125
When Does Our Behavior Affect Our
Attitudes? 127
Role playing 128
When saying becomes believing 129
Focus On: Saying becomes believing 130
The foot-in-the-door phenomenon 130
Evil and moral acts 132
Interracial behavior and racial attitudes 134
Social movements 134
Why Does Our Behavior Affect Our Attitudes? 136
Self-presentation: Impression management 136
Self-justification: Cognitive dissonance 137
The Inside Story: Leon Festinger on
dissonance reduction 139
Self-perception 141
Comparing the theories 146
Postscript: Changing Ourselves Through
Action 148
Part Two Social Influence
Chapter 5
Genes, Culture, and Gender 153
How Are We Influenced by Human Nature and
Cultural Diversity? 154
Genes, evolution, and behavior 154
Culture and behavior 156
Focus On: The cultural animal 157
Research Close-Up: Passing encounters,
East and West 160
How Are Gender Similarities and Differences
Explained? 164
Independence versus connectedness 165
Social dominance 167
Aggression 169
Sexuality 169
Evolution and Gender: Doing What Comes
Naturally? 171
Gender and mating preferences 172
Reflections on evolutionary psychology 174
Focus On: Evolutionary science and religion 175
Gender and hormones 176
Culture and Gender: Doing as the Culture
Says? 177
Gender roles vary with culture 178
Gender roles vary over time 178
Peer-transmitted culture 180
What Can We Conclude about Genes, Culture,
and Gender? 182
Biology and culture 182
The Inside Story: Alice Eagly on gender
similarities and differences 183
The power of the situation and the person 184
Postscript: Should We View Ourselves as
Products or Architects of Our Social
Worlds? 185
Chapter 6
Conformity and Obedience 187
What Is Conformity? 188
What Are the Classic Conformity and
Obedience Studies? 189
Sherif’s studies of norm formation 189
Research Close-Up: Contagious yawning 191
Asch’s studies of group pressure 192
Focus On: Mass delusions 193
Milgram’s obedience experiments 194
Focus On: Personalizing the victims 198
What breeds obedience? 198
Reflections on the classic studies 201
The Inside Story: Stanley Milgram on
obedience 202
What Predicts Conformity? 207
Group size 207
Unanimity 208
Cohesion 209
Status 210
Public response 210
No prior commitment 210
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Why Conform? 212
Who Conforms? 214
Personality 214
Culture 215
Social roles 216
Do We Ever Want to Be Different? 218
Reactance 218
Asserting uniqueness 219
Postscript: On Being an Individual within
Community 220
Chapter 7
Persuasion 223
What Paths Lead to Persuasion? 225
The central route 226
The peripheral route 226
Different routes for different purposes 227
What Are the Elements of Persuasion? 228
Who says? The communicator 228
Research Close-Up: Experimenting with a
virtual social reality 232
What is said? The message content 233
How is it said? The channel of communication 240
To whom is it said? The audience 244
Extreme Persuasion: How Do Cults
Indoctrinate? 247
Attitudes follow behavior 249
Persuasive elements 250
Group effects 251
How Can Persuasion be Resisted? 253
Strengthening personal commitment 254
The Inside Story:William McGuire on
attitude inoculation 254
Real-life applications: Inoculation programs 255
Implications of attitude inoculation 258
Postscript: Being Open but Not Naive 258
Chapter 8
Group Influence 261
What Is a Group? 262
Social Facilitation: How Are We Affected by
the Presence of Others? 262
The mere presence of others 263
Crowding: The presence of many others 264
Why are we aroused in the presence of others? 266
Social Loafing: Do Individuals Exert Less
Effort in a Group? 268
Many hands make light work 268
Social loafing in everyday life 270
Deindividuation: When Do People Lose Their
Sense of Self in Groups? 272
Doing together what we would not do alone 273
Diminished self-awareness 275
Group Polarization: Do Groups Intensify Our
Opinions? 276
The case of the “risky shift” 277
Do groups intensify opinions? 278
Focus On: Group polarization 281
Explaining polarization 282
Groupthink: Do Groups Hinder or Assist Good
Decisions? 284
The Inside Story: Irving Janis on groupthink 285
Symptoms of groupthink 286
Critiquing the concept of groupthink 288
Preventing groupthink 289
Group problem solving 289
The Inside Story: Behind a Nobel Prize:
Two minds are better than one 291
The Influence of the Minority: How Do
Individuals Influence the Group? 292
Consistency 292
Self-confidence 293
Defections from the majority 293
Is leadership minority influence? 294
Focus On: Transformational community
leadership 296
Postscript: Are Groups Bad for Us? 297
Part Three Social Relations
Chapter 9
Prejudice: Disliking Others 301
What Is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? 302
Defining prejudice 302
Prejudice: Subtle and overt 303
Racial prejudice 304
Gender prejudice 308
What Are the Social Sources of Prejudice? 311
Social inequalities: Unequal status and prejudice 311
Socialization 312
Institutional supports 314
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What Are the Motivational Sources
of Prejudice? 316
Frustration and aggression: The scapegoat theory 316
Social identity theory: Feeling superior to others 317
Motivation to avoid prejudice 322
What Are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? 323
Categorization: Classifying people into groups 324
Distinctiveness: Perceiving people who stand out 326
Attribution: Is it a just world? 330
What Are the Consequences of Prejudice? 333
Self-perpetuating stereotypes 333
Discrimination’s impact: The self-fulfilling
prophecy 335
Stereotype threat 336
The Inside Story: Claude Steele on
stereotype threat 338
Do stereotypes bias judgments of individuals? 338
Postscript: Can We Reduce Prejudice? 340
Chapter 10
Aggression: Hurting Others 343
What Is Aggression? 344
What Are Some Theories of Aggression? 345
Aggression as a biological phenomenon 346
Aggression as a response to frustration 349
Aggression as learned social behavior 352
What Are Some Influences on Aggression? 354
Aversive incidents 354
Arousal 357
Aggression cues 358
Media influences: Pornography and sexual violence 359
Media influences: Television 363
Media influences: Video games 368
The Inside Story: Craig Anderson on video
game violence 371
Group influences 371
Research Close-Up: When provoked, are
groups more aggressive than individuals? 373
How Can Aggression Be Reduced? 374
Catharsis? 374
Focus On: Clinical researcher Martin
Seligman looks at catharsis 376
A social learning approach 376
Postscript: Reforming a Violent Culture 378
Chapter 11
Attraction and Intimacy:
Liking and Loving Others 381
What Leads to Friendship and Attraction? 384
Proximity 385
Focus On: Liking things associated with
oneself 388
Physical attractiveness 390
The Inside Story: Ellen Berscheid on
attractiveness 395
Similarity versus complementarity 399
The Inside Story: James Jones on cultural
diversity 401
Liking those who like us 402
Focus On: Bad is stronger than good 403
Relationship rewards 405
What Is Love? 407
Passionate love 408
Companionate love 410
What Enables Close Relationships? 413
Attachment 413
Equity 416
Self-disclosure 418
Focus On: Does the Internet create
intimacy or isolation? 418
How Do Relationships End? 420
Divorce 421
The detachment process 422
Postscript: Making Love 424
Chapter 12
Helping 427
Why Do We Help? 429
Social exchange and social norms 429
The Inside Story: Dennis Krebs on life
experience and professional interests 431
Evolutionary psychology 437
Comparing and evaluating theories of helping 439
Genuine altruism 440
Focus On: The benefits—and the costs—
of empathy-induced altruism 443
When Will We Help? 445
Number of bystanders 446
The Inside Story: John M. Darley on
bystander reactions 447
Helping when someone else does 451
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Time pressures 452
Similarity 452
Research Close-Up: Ingroup similarity and
helping 453
Who Will Help? 455
Personality traits 455
Religious faith 456
How Can We Increase Helping? 458
Reduce ambiguity, increase responsibility 458
Guilt and concern for self-image 459
Socializing altruism 460
Focus On: Behavior and attitudes among
rescuers of Jews 463
Postscript: Taking Social Psychology into Life 465
Chapter 13
Conflict and Peacemaking 467
What Creates Conflict? 468
Social dilemmas 468
Competition 475
Perceived injustice 476
Misperception 477
Research Close-Up: Misperception and war 482
How Can Peace Be Achieved? 483
Contact 483
Research Close-Up: Relationships that
might have been 486
Cooperation 487
Focus On: Why do we care who wins? 489
Focus On: Branch Rickey, Jackie Robinson,
and the integration of baseball 495
Communication 497
Conciliation 502
Postscript: The Conflict between Individual
and Communal Rights 504
Part Four Applying Social
Psychology
Chapter 14
Social Psychology in the Clinic 509
What Influences the Accuracy of Clinical
Judgments? 510
Illusory correlations 510
Hindsight and overconfidence 511
Self-confirming diagnoses 512
Clinical versus statistical prediction 513
Implications for better clinical practice 514
Focus On: A physician’s view 515
What Cognitive Processes Accompany
Behavior Problems? 516
Depression 516
The Inside Story: Shelley Taylor on
positive illusions 518
Loneliness 520
Anxiety and shyness 521
Health, illness, and death 523
What Are Some Social-Psychological
Approaches to Treatment? 528
Inducing internal change through external
behavior 529
Breaking vicious circles 529
Maintaining change through internal
attributions for success 531
Using therapy as social influence 532
How Do Social Relationships Support Health
and Well-Being? 533
Close relationships and health 533
Close relationships and happiness 536
Postscript: Enhancing Happiness 538
Chapter 15
Social Psychology in Court 541
How Reliable Is Eyewitness Testimony? 543
The power of persuasive eyewitnesses 543
When eyes deceive 544
The misinformation effect 546
Focus On: Eyewitness testimony 547
Retelling 549
Reducing error 549
Research Close-Up: Feedback to witnesses 550
What Other Factors Influence Juror
Judgments? 555
The defendant’s characteristics 555
The judge’s instructions 559
Additional factors 561
What Influences the Individual Juror? 561
Juror comprehension 562
Jury selection 564
“Death-qualified” jurors 565
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How Do Group Influences Affect Juries? 567
Minority influence 567
Group polarization 567
Leniency 568
Research Close-Up: Group polarization in a
natural court setting 569
Are twelve heads better than one? 570
Are six heads as good as twelve? 570
From lab to life: Simulated and real juries 571
Postscript: Thinking Smart with
Psychological Science 572
Chapter 16
Social Psychology and
the Sustainable Future 575
An Environmental Call to Action 576
Enabling Sustainable Living 578
New technologies 578
Reducing consumption 579
The Social Psychology of Materialism
and Wealth 581
Increased materialism 581
Wealth and well-being 582
Materialism fails to satisfy 584
Focus On: Social comparison, belonging,
and happiness 587
Toward sustainability and survival 587
Research Close-Up: Measuring national
well-being 589
Postscript: How Does One Live Responsibly
in the Modern World? 590
Epilogue 593
Credits C-1
References R-1
Name Index N-1
Subject Index/Glossary S-1
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